the Countries with there Capitals, Currencies, Language, & Religion/s −

The following tables illustrates the Countries with tiher Capitals, Currencies, Language, & Religion/s −

Country	Capitals	Currency	Language	Religion*
Afghanistan	Kabul	Afghani	Pashto, Dari (Persian)	Islam
Albania	Tirana	Lek	Albanian	Islam, Christianity
Algeria	Algiers	Algerian Dinar	Arabic; Tamazight; French	Islam
Andorra	Andorra la Vella	Euro	Catalan	Christianity
Angola	Luanda	Kwanza	Portuguese	Christianity
Antigua & Barbuda	Saint John's	East Caribbean Dollar	English	Christianity
Argentina	Buenos Aires	Argentine Peso	Spanish	Christianity (But Secular Country)
Armenia	Yerevan	Dram	Armenian	Christianity
Australia	Canberra	Australian Dollar	English	Christianity (But Secular Country)
Austria	Vienna	Euro	German	Christianity
Azerbaijan	Baku	Manat	Azerbaijani	Islam
The Bahamas	Nassau	Bahamian Dollar	English	Christianity
Bahrain	Manama	Bahraini Dinar	Arabic	Islam
Bangladesh	Dhaka	Taka	Bangla	Islam
Barbados	Bridgetown	Barbadian Dollar	English	Christianity
Belarus	Minsk	Belarusian Ruble	Belarusian; Russian	Christianity
Belgium	Brussels	Euro	Dutch; French; German	Secular
Belize	Belmopan	Belize Dollar	English	Christianity
Benin	Porto-Novo	West African CFA Franc	French	Christianity
Bhutan	Thimphu	Ngultrum	Dzongkha	Buddhism, Hindu
Bosnia & Herzegovina	Sarajevo	Convertible Mark	Bosnian; Croatian; Serbian	Islam, Christianity
Botswana	Gaborone	Pula	English; Tswana	Christianity
Brazil	Brasilia	Real	Portuguese	Christianity
Brunei	Bandar Seri Begawan	Brunei Dollar	Malay	Islam
Bulgaria	Sofia	Lev	Bulgarian	Secular
Burkina Faso	Ouagadougou	West African CFA Franc	French	Islam, Christianity
Burundi	Bujumbura	Burundi Franc	Kirundi; French	Christianity
Cambodia	Phnom Penh	Riel	Khmer	Buddhism
Cameroon	Yaoundé	Central African CFA Franc	French; English	Christianity
Canada	Ottawa	Canadian Dollar	English; French	Christianity (But Secular Country)
Cape Verde	Praia	Cape Verdean Escudo	Portuguese	Christianity
Central African Republic	Bangui	Central African CFA Franc	Sango; French	Christianity
Chad	N'Djamena	Central African CFA Franc	French; Arabic	Islam, Christianity
Chile	Santiago	Chilean Peso	Spanish	Christianity
China	Beijing	Chinese Yuan	Mandarin	N/A
Colombia	Bogota	Colombian Peso	Spanish	Christianity
Comoros	Moroni	Comorian Franc	Comorian; Arabic; French	Islam
Democratic Republic of the Congo	Kinshasa	Congolese Franc	French	Christianity
Republic of the Congo	Brazzaville	Central African CFA Franc	French	N/A
Costa Rica	San Jose	Colon	Spanish	Christianity
Cote d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)	Yamoussoukro; Abidjan	West African CFA Franc	French	Islam, Christianity
Croatia	Zagreb	Croatian	Kuna	Christianity
Cuba	Havana	Cuban Peso	Spanish	Christianity
Cyprus	Nicosia	Euro	Greek; Turkish	Christianity, Islam
Czech Republic	Prague	Czech Koruna	Czech; Slovak	N/A
Denmark	Copenhagen	Danish Krone	Danish	Christianity
Djibouti	Djibouti City	Djiboutian Franc	Arabic; French	Islam, Christianity
Dominica	Roseau	East Caribbean Dollar	English; French; Antillean Creole	Christianity
Dominican Republic	Santo Domingo	Dominican Peso	Spanish	Christianity
East Timor (Timor-Leste)	Dili	United States Dollar	Tetum; Portuguese	Christianity
Ecuador	Quito	United States Dollar	Spanish	Christianity
Egypt	Cairo	Egyptian Pound	Arabic	Islam
El Salvador	San Salvador	United States Dollar	Spanish	Christianity
Equatorial Guinea	Malabo	Central African CFA Franc	Spanish; French; Portuguese	Christianity
Eritrea	Asmara	Nakfa	Arabic; Tigrinya; English	Christianity, Islam
Estonia	Tallinn	Estonian Kroon; Euro	Estonian	Secular
Ethiopia	Addis Ababa	Birr	Amharic	Islam, Christianity
Fiji	Suva	Fijian Dollar	English; Bau Fijian; Hindi	Christianity, Hindu, Islam
Finland	Helsinki	Euro	Finnish; Swedish	Christianity
France	Paris	Euro; CFP Franc	French	Secular
Gabon	Libreville	Central African CFA Franc	French	Christianity
The Gambia	Banjul	Dalasi	English	Islam
Georgia	Tbilisi	Lari	Georgian	Christianity
Germany	Berlin	Euro	German	Christianity
Ghana	Accra	Ghanaian Cedi	English	Christianity, Islam
Greece	Athens	Euro	Greek	(Christianity) Orthodoxy
Grenada	St. George's	East Caribbean Dollar	English; Patois	Christianity
Guatemala	Guatemala City	Quetzal	Spanish	Christianity
Guinea	Conakry	Guinean Franc	French	Islam, Christianity
Guinea-Bissau	Bissau	West African CFA Franc	Portuguese	Islam, Christianity
Guyana	Georgetown	Guyanese Dollar	English	Christianity, Hindu, Islam
Haiti	Port-au-Prince	Gourde	Haitian Creole; French	Christianity
Honduras	Tegucigalpa	Lempira	Spanish	Christianity
Hungary	Budapest	Forint	Hungarian	Christianity
Iceland	Reykjavik	Icelandic Krona	Icelandic	Christianity
India	New Delhi	Indian Rupee	Hindi; English	Secular
Indonesia	Jakarta	Rupiah	Indonesian	Islam
Iran	Tehran	Rial	Persian	Islam
Iraq	Baghdad	Iraqi Dinar	Arabic; Kurdish	Islam
Republic of Ireland	Dublin	Euro	English; Irish	Christianity
Israel	Jerusalem	Shekel	Hebrew; Arabic	Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Druze
Italy	Rome	Euro	Italian	Christianity
Jamaica	Kingston	Jamaican Dollar	English	Christianity
Japan	Tokyo	Yen	Japanese	Buddhism or Shinto (But Secular Country)
Jordan	Amman	Jordanian Dinar	Arabic	Islam
Kazakhstan	Astana	Tenge	Kazakh; Russian	Islam, Christianity
Kenya	Nairobi	Kenyan Shilling	Swahili; English	Christianity
Kiribati	Tarawa Atoll	Kiribati Dollar	English; Gilbertese	Christianity
North Korea	Pyongyang	North Korean Won	Korean	Secular
South Korea	Seoul	South Korean Won	Korean	Atheist (but some follow Buddhist & Christian)
Kosovo	Pristina	Euro	Albanian; Serbian	Islam
Kuwait	Kuwait City	Kuwaiti Dollar	Arabic; English	Islam
Kyrgyzstan	Bishkek	Som	Kyrgyz; Russian	Islam, Russian Orthodoxy
Laos	Vientiane	Kip	Lao (Laotian)	Buddhism
Latvia	Riga	Lats	Latvian	Christianity
Lebanon	Beirut	Lebanese Pound	Arabic; French	Islam, Christianity
Lesotho	Maseru	Loti	Sesotho; English	Christianity
Liberia	Monrovia	Liberian Dollar	English	Christianity
Libya	Tripoli	Libyan Dinar	Arabic	Islam
Liechtenstein	Vaduz	Swiss Franc	German	Christianity
Lithuania	Vilnius	Lithuanian Litas	Lithuanian	Christianity
Luxembourg	Luxembourg	Euro	German; French; Luxembourgish	Christianity (But it is a Secular Country)
Macedonia	Skopje	Macedonian Denar	Macedonian	Christianity, Islam
Madagascar	Antananarivo	Malagasy Ariary	Malagasy; French; English	Traditional Religion
Malawi	Lilongwe	Malawi Kwacha	English	Christianity, Islam
Malaysia	Kuala Lumpur	Ringgit	Malay	Islam
Mali	Bamako	West African CFA Franc	French	Islam, Christianity
Malta	Valletta	Euro	Maltese; English	Christianity
Marshall Islands	Majuro	United States Dollar	Marshallese; English	Christianity
Mauritania	Nouakchott	Ouguiya	Arabic	Islam
Mauritius	Port Louis	Mauritian Rupee	English	Christianity, Islam
Mexico	Mexico City	Mexican Peso	Spanish	Christianity
Federal States of Micronesia	Palikir	United States Dollar	English	Christianity
Moldova	Chisinau	Moldovan Leu	Moldovan (Romanian)	Christianity
Monaco	Monaco	Euro	French; Italian; English	Christianity
Mongolia	Ulaanbaatar	Togrog	Mongolian	Buddhism
Montenegro	Podgorica	Euro	Montenegrin	Islam, Christianity
Morocco	Rabat	Moroccan Dirham	Arabic	Islam
Mozambique	Maputo	Mozambican Metical	Portuguese	Christianity, Islam
Myanmar (Burma)	Nypyidaw	Kyat	Burmese	Buddhism
Namibia	Windhoek	Namibian Dollar	English; Afrikaans; German	Christianity
Nauru	Yaren	Australian Dollar	English; Nauran	Christianity
Nepal	Kathmandu	Nepalese Rupee	Nepali	Hindu, Buddhism, Islam
Netherlands	Amsterdam; The Hague	Euro	Dutch	Christianity (But a Secular Country)
New Zealand	Wellington	New Zealand Dollar	English	Christianity (But a Secular Country)
Nicaragua	Managua	Cordoba	Spanish	Christianity
Niger	Niamey	West African CFA Franc	French	Islam, Christianity
Nigeria	Abuja	Naira	English	Christianity, Islam
Norway	Oslo	Norwegian Krone	Norwegian	Christianity
Oman	Muscat	Omani Rial	Arabic	Islam
Pakistan	Islamabad	Pakistani Rupee	Urdu; English	Islam
Palau	Melekeok	United States Dollar	English; Palauan	Christianity
Panama	Panama City	Balboa	Spanish	Christianity
Papa New Guinea	Port Moresby	Papa New Guinean Kina	English; Tok Pisin; Hiri Motu	Christianity
Paraguay	Asuncion	Guarani	Spanish; Guarani	Christianity
Peru	Lima	Nuevo Sol	Spanish	Christianity
Philippines	Manila	Philippine Peso	Filipino; English	Christianity, Islam
Poland	Warsaw	Złoty	Polish	Christianity
Portugal	Lisbon	Euro	Portuguese	Christianity
Qatar	Doha	Qatari Riyal	Arabic	Islam
Romania	Bucharest	Romanian Rupee	Romanian	Christianity
Russia	Moscow	Ruble	Russian	Christianity
Rwanda	Kigali	Rwandan Franc	Kinyarwanda; French; English	Christianity
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Basseterre	East Caribbean Dollar	English	Christianity
Saint Lucia	Castries	East Caribbean Dollar	English; French	Christianity
Saint Vincent & The Grenadines	Kingstown	East Caribbean Dollar	English	Christianity
Samoa	Apia	Tala	Samoan; English	Christianity
San Marino	San Marino	Euro	Italian	Christianity
Sao Tome and Principe	Sao Tome	Dobra	Portuguese	Christianity
Saudi Arabia	Riyadh	Saudi Riyal	Arabic	Islam
Senegal	Dakar	West African CFA Franc	French	Islam
Serbia	Belgrade	Serbian Dinar	Serbian	Christianity
Seychelles	Victoria	Seychoellois Rupee	Seychellois Creole; French; English	Christianity
Sierra Leone	Freetown	Leone	Krio; English	Islam, Christianity
Singapore	Singapore	Singapore Dollar	English; Malay; Mandarin Chinese	Buddhist, Christianity
Slovakia	Bratislava	Euro	Slovak	Christianity
Slovenia	Ljubljana	Euro	Slovene	Christianity
Solomon Islands	Honiara	Solomon Islands Dollar	Solomons Pijin	Christianity
Somalia	Mogadishu	Somali Shilling	Somali; Arabic	Islam
South Africa	Pretoria; Cape Town; Bloemfontein	Rand	Zulu; Xhosa; Afrikaans	Christianity
Spain	Madrid	Euro	Spanish	Christianity
Sri Lanka	Colombo	Sri Lankan Rupee	Sinhala; Tamil	Buddhist, Hindu, Islam
Sudan	Khartoum	Sudanese Pound	Arabic; English	Islam
Suriname	Paramaribo	Surinamese Dollar	Dutch	Christianity
Swaziland	Mbabane	Lilangeni	English; SiSwati	Christianity
Sweden	Stockholm	Swedish Krona	Swedish	Christianity
Switzerland	Berne	Swiss Franc	German; French; Italian	Christianity
Syria	Damascus	Syrian Pound	Arabic	Islam, Christianity
Taiwan	Taipei	New Taiwan Dollar	Mandarin	Polytheistic ancient Chinese religion, Buddhism
Tajikistan	Dushanbe	Somoni	Tajik; Russian	Islam
Tanzania	Dar es Salaam; Dodoma	Tanzanian Schilling	Swahili	Islam, Christianity
Thailand	Bangkok	Thai Baht	Thai	Buddhism
Togo	Lome	West African CFA Franc	French	Traditional/Native religion, Christianity
Tonga	Nuku'alofa	Pa'anga	Tongan; English	Christianity
Trinidad and Tobago	Port-of-Spain	Trinidad and Tobago Dollar	English	Christianity, Hindu, Islam
Tunisia	Tunis	Tunisian Dinar	Tunisian; French	Islam
Turkey	Ankara	Turkish Lira	Turkish	Islam (But Secular country)
Turkmenistan	Ashgabat	Turkmen New Manat	Turkmen; Russian	Islam
Tuvalu	Vaiaku	Tuvaluan Dollar	Tuvaluan; English	Christianity
Uganda	Kampala	Ugandan Shilling	Swahili; English	Christianity
Ukraine	Kiev	Hryvnia	Ukrainian; Russian	Eastern Orthodoxy
United Arab Emirates	Abu Dhabi	Dirham	Arabic	Islam
United Kingdom	London	Pound Sterling	English	Christianity
United States of America	Washington D.C.	United States Dollar	English; Spanish	Christianity
Uruguay	Montevideo	Uruguayan Peso	Spanish	Christianity
Uzbekistan	Tashkent	Uzbekistan Som	Uzbek; Russian	Islam
Vanuatu	Port-Vila	Vanuatu Vatu	Bislama; English; French	Christianity
Vatican City	Vatican City	Euro	Latin; Italian	Christianity
Venezuela	Caracas	Bolivar Fuerte	Spanish	Christianity
Vietnam	Hanoi	Dong	Vietnamese	Native religious practice, Christianity
Yemen	Sanaa	Yemeni Rial	Arabic	Islam
Zambia	Lusaka	Zambian Kwacha	English	Christianity
Zimbabwe	Harare	United States Dollar	English	Christianity

*List of religion/s illustrates only those religions, which are practiced by majority of the people (in their respective country). In addition, there are number of religions practiced by minority of people in most of the countries, not enlisted here.

the landlocked countries of the world −

The following table enlists the landlocked countries of the world −

Name	Continent/Location
Lesotho	Africa (Locked by only one country i.e. South Africa)
Vatican City	Europe (Locked by only one Country i.e. Italy)
San Marino	Europe (Locked by only one Country i.e. Italy)
Mongolia	Asia (Locked by two countries namely Russia & China)
Bhutan	Asia (Locked by two countries namely India & China)
Nepal	Asia (Locked by two countries namely India & China)
Andorra	Europe (Locked by two countries namely France & Spain)
Liechtenstein	Europe (it is one of the double landlocked countries between Switzerland & Austria)
Moldova	Europe (Locked by two countries namely Ukraine & Romania)
Swaziland	Africa (Locked by two countries namely South Africa & Mozambique)
Uzbekistan	Asia (it is double landlocked country surrounded by Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan
Afghanistan	Asia
Armenia	Asia
Azerbaijan	Asia
Kazakhstan	Asia
Kyrgyzstan	Asia
Tajikistan	Asia
Turkmenistan	Asia
Uzbekistan	Asia
Laos	Asia
Austria	Europe
Belarus	Europe
Hungary	Europe
Kosovo	Europe
Luxembourg	Europe
Macedonia	Europe
Moldova	Europe
Serbia	Europe
Slovakia	Europe
Switzerland	Europe
Bolivia	South America
Paraguay	South America
Botswana	Africa
Burkina Faso	Africa
Burundi	Africa
Central African Republic	Africa
Chad	Africa
Czech Republic	Africa
Ethiopia	Africa
Malawi	Africa
Mali	Africa
Niger	Africa
Rwanda	Africa
South Sudan	Africa
Uganda	Africa
Zambia	Africa
Zimbabwe	Africa

the landlocked states of India −

The following table enlists the landlocked states of India −

Name	Location	Image
Haryana	(North)
Jharkhand	East
Madhya Pradesh	Central
Chhattisgarh	(Central) East
Telangana	South

the important International Boundaries/Lines −

• The following tables describes the important International Boundaries/Lines −

  S.No	Name & Description
  1	The 17th Parallel It is the Line Between North & South Vietnam
  2	The 38th parallel It is the Line Between North & South Korea (Before the Korean war)
  3	The 49th Parallel (also The Medicine Line) It is the Boundary Between Canada & the USA
  4	The 24th Parallel It is the Line that Pakistan claims for the demarcation purpose, but India does not accept it
  5	The Siegfried Line It is the Boundary Between France and Germany
  6	The Maginot Line It is France’s Defensive Line
  7	The Hindenburg Line It was the Line that described Germany’s position during the World War I
  8	The Oder–Neisse line It is the Boundary Between Germany & Poland
  9	The Radcliffe Line It is the Boundary Between India & Pakistan
  10	The McMahon Line It is the Boundary Between India & China (However, originally signed between Britain & Tibet)
  11	The Mannerheim Line It was a defensive line drawn on the Karelian Isthmus by Finland against the Soviet Union
  12	The Durand Line It is the Boundary Between Pakistan & India (formerly between British India and Afghanistan)
  13	The Line of Control (LoC) It is the military control line between India and Pakistan (in the state of Jammu & Kashmir)
  14	The Line of Actual Control (LAC) It is the Effective Boundary between India and China

The time line

• Parallels of longitude determine the time of a given place.

• Local time (of any place) is measured in reference to Greenwich Time (London), which changes at the rate of four min/degree of longitude.

• Greenwich Time Line is also known as “Prime Meridian” i.e. 0⁰.

• International Standard Time is measured in reference of the Prime Meridian (or Greenwich).

• The Earth rotates through 360⁰ in 24 hours or 15⁰ in 1 hour or 1⁰ in 4 minutes. Therefore, the local time varies at the rate of 4 min/degree of longitude from the Greenwich Time.

• As shown in the map given above, Kolkata is approximately 90⁰ east of Greenwich; so, Kolkata is (90⁰ x 4 = 360 min) six hours ahead of the Greenwich Time (London).

the major Waterfalls (Based on Height) of the world −

The following table enlists the major Waterfalls (Based on Height) of the world −

Waterfalls	Height (in Meters)	Location	On (River)
Angel Falls	979	Venezuela	Churun River (a tributary of Orinoco River)
Tugela Falls	948	South Africa	Tugela River
Tres Hermanas Falls	914	Peru	N/A
Olo'upena Falls	900	Hawaii (USA)	N/A
Yumbilla Falls	896	Peru	N/A

The following table enlists the major Waterfalls (Based on Flow Rate) of the world −

Waterfalls	Mean annual flow rate (m3/s)	Width (m)	River	Location
Boyoma Falls	17,000	1,372	Lualaba	Democratic Republic of the Congo
Guaíra Falls	13,300		Parana	Paraguay & Brazil
Khone Phapheng Falls	11,610	10,783	Mekong	Laos
Niagara Falls	2,407	1,203	Niagara	Canada
Iguazú Falls	1,746	2,700	Iguazu	Argentina & Brazil
Victoria	1,088	1,708	Zambezi	Zambia & Zimbabwe

The major Rivers of the world −

The following table enlists the major Rivers of the world −

River	Length (in KM)	Ending Point	Location
Nile	6,650	Mediterranean Sea	Africa
Amazon	6,400	Atlantic Ocean	South America
Yangtze	6,300	East China Sea	China (Asia)
Mississippi–Missouri	6,275	Gulf of Mexico	USA
Yenisei–Angara– Selenge	5,539	Kara Sea	Russia
Yellow River (Huang He)	5,464	Bohai Sea	China (Asia)
Ob–Irtysh	5,410	Gulf of Ob	Asia
Paraná – Río de la Plata	4,880	Atlantic Ocean	South America
Congo–Chambeshi (Zaïre)	4,700	Atlantic Ocean	Africa
Amur–Argun	4,444	Sea of Okhotsk	Asia

The major Straits* of the world −

The following table enlists the major Straits* of the world −

Strait	Connects	Separates
Bab-el-Mandeb	Red Sea to Gulf of Aden	Yamen (Asia) from Djibouti & Eritrea (Africa)
Bass strait	Pacific Ocean (No other water body)	Tasmania from the Australian mainland
Bering Strait	Bering Sea (Pacific Ocean) to Chukchi Sea (Arctic Ocean)	Russia from Alaska (USA)
Bosphorus Strait	Black Sea to Sea of Marmara	Asian Turkey from European Turkey
Cook Strait	Pacific Ocean (No other water body)	North Island from South Islands of New Zealand
Davis strait	Baffin Bay to Atlantic Ocean	Greenland from Nunavut (Canada's Baffin Island)
Denmark strait	Atlantic Ocean (No other water body)	Iceland from Greenland
Dover strait	English Channel & North Sea	England from France
English Channel	North Sea & Atlantic Ocean	England from France
Florida Strait	Gulf of Mexico to Atlantic Ocean	Florida (USA) from Cuba
Gibraltar Strait	Atlantic Ocean to Mediterranean Sea	Spain (Europe) from Morocco (Africa)
Hormuz strait	Gulf of Oman to Persian Gulf	UAE & Oman from Iran
Hudson strait	Atlantic Ocean to Hudson Bay	Baffin Island from Quebec (in Canada)
Magellan strait	Pacific Ocean to Atlantic Ocean	Mainland South America from north and Tierra del Fuego to the south (South America)
Malacca Strait	South China Sea to Andaman Sea	Malay Peninsula from Indonesian island
Mozambique Strait	Indian Ocean (No other water body)	Madagascar from Mozambique
Palk Strait	Bay of Bengal to Gulf of Mannar	India from Sri Lanka
Sunda Strait	Indian Ocean to Java Sea	Islands of Java from Sumatra (Indonesia)
Torres Strait	Arafura Sea to Coral Sea (Pacific Ocean)	Australia from Papua New Guinea
Tsugaru Strait	Sea of Japan (East Sea) to Pacific Ocean	Honshu from Hokkaido (Japan)
Yucatan Strait	Gulf of Mexico to Caribbean Sea	Mexico from Cuba
100 Channel	Bay of Bengal to Andaman Sea	Island of Little Andaman from Car Nicobar Island (of India)
90 Channel	Indian Ocean (No other water body)	Laccadive Islands of Kalpeni from Suheli Par, and Maliku Atoll (of India)

*Strait is a thin waterbody that connects two big water masses and separates two land masses.

The major Lakes of the world −

The following table enlists the major Lakes of the world −

Sea	Area (sq. km)	Location (in)
Caspian Sea	436,000	Asia
Lake Superior	82,100	North America
Lake Victoria	68,870	Africa
Lake Huron	59,600	North America
Lake Michigan	58,000	North America
Lake Tanganyika	32,600	Africa
Lake Baikal	31,500	Russia
Great Bear Lake	31,000	Canada
Malawi	29,500	Africa
Great Slave Lake	27,000	27,000

The major Seas of the world −

• The following table enlists major Seas of the world −

  Sea	Area (sq. km)	Location (in)
  Arabian Sea	3,862,000	Indian Ocean
  South China Sea	3,500,000	Pacific Ocean
  Caribbean Sea	2,754,000	Atlantic Ocean
  Mediterranean Sea	2,500,000	Atlantic Ocean
  Bay of Bengal	2,172,000	Indian Ocean
  Bering Sea	2,000,000	Pacific Ocean
  Sea of Okhotsk	1,583,000	Pacific Ocean
  Gulf of Mexico	1,550,000	Atlantic Ocean
  East China Sea	1,249,000	Pacific Ocean
  Hudson Bay	1,230,000	Atlantic Ocean
  Sea of Japan	977,980	Pacific Ocean

  

• 
  

Hydrosphere system

• Hydrosphere is the combined name (for the study purpose) given to all the water bodies found on the Earth’s surface, for example, Oceans, Rivers, Lakes, etc.

• About 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered by water and rest is covered by landmass.

• About 97.5% (of total hydrosphere) is saline water and rest 2.5% is fresh water.

• About 68.7% of the fresh water is available in the form of permanent snow found in the regions of Arctic, Antarctic, and other mountain glaciers.

• About 29.9% fresh water is available in the form of (fresh) groundwater.

• Only about 0.26% fresh water is easily accessible for the use, available in the form of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, etc.

Oceans

• There are five Oceans namely −

• Pacific Ocean

• Atlantic Ocean

• Indian Ocean

• Arctic Ocean &

• Southern Ocean

• The following table describes the major facts of all the five Oceans −

Ocean	Area (sq. km)	% of Total	Avg. Depth (in meter)	Deepest Point
Pacific Ocean	168,723,000	46.6	3,970	Mariana Trench (10,994 m deep)
Atlantic Ocean	85,133,000	23.5	3,646	Puerto Rico Trench (8,648 m)
Indian Ocean	70,560,000	19.5	3,741	Diamantina Trench (8,047 m) Sunda Trench (7,725 m)
Arctic Ocean	15,558,000	15,558,000	1,205	Eurasian Basin (5,450 m)
Southern Ocean	21,960,000	6.1	3,270	South Sandwich Trench (7,236 m)

The mountain system

• Mountain is a large natural elevation of the earth's surface that rises abruptly from the surrounding area.

Types of Mountains

• The following are the major types of the Mountains −

  • Fold Mountains − e.g. Himalayas (in Asia), Rockies (in North America), Andes (in South America), Alps (Europe), etc.

  • Block Mountains − e.g. Black Forest (Germany), Vosges (France), etc.

  • Volcanic Mountains − e.g. Mt. Vesuvius (Italy), Mt. Fujiyama (Japan), Mt. Cotopaxi & Mt. Chimborazo (South America), etc.

  • Residual/Relict Mountain − e.g. Aravalli, Western Ghats (India), etc.

Earth's Rock System

• Rock is the solid mineral material that forms part of the surface of the earth, exposed on the Earth’s surface or underlying the soil.

• Rock is divided into following three types −

  • Igneous Rocks

  • Sedimentary Rock

  • Metamorphic Rock

Igneous Rock

• Igneous Rock is normally formed by the solidification of the molten magma.

• All other types of rocks are formed by the igneous rock; therefore, igneous rock is also known as primary rock.

• About 95% of the Earth’s crust is made of igneous rock.

• Granite, Basalt, and Volcanic rock are the major types of igneous rock.

Sedimentary Rock

• The rocks, which is formed because of the deposition of weathered remains of igneous rocks, is known as ‘Sedimentary Rock.’

• Sedimentary rocks share 5% of the Earth’s surface, but cover (in terms of area) about 75% of Earth’s (exposed) surface.

• Sedimentary rocks also contain organic materials (i.e. source of energy for the human beings).

• Major examples of sedimentary rocks are Gypsum, Limestone, Chalk, Coal, Conglomerates, Sandstone, Claystone, etc.

Metamorphic Rock

• Because of the intense pressure, high fluctuating temperature, and presence and absence of moisture and chemicals, over a period of time, igneous rock or sedimentary rocks get modified (metamorphosed) and called as ‘Metamorphic Rock.’

• Major examples of metamorphic rock are Slate, Gneiss, Marble, Quartzite, etc.

Facts of content(ಖಂಡಗಳು)

There are seven continents as shown in the image given below −

The following table illustrates some basic facts of all the continents −

Continent	Area (km2)	% of Total Land Mass	Population	% of Total Populat ion	Density Per Sq. km
Asia	43,820,000	29.5	4,164,252,000	60	95
Africa	30,370,000	20.4	1,022,234,000	15	33.7
North America	24,490,000	16.5	542,056,000	8	22.1
South America	17,840,000	12	392,555,000	6	22
Europe	10,180,000	6.8	738,199,000	11	72.5
Australia	9,008,500	5.9	29,127,000	0.4	3.2
Antarctica	13,720,000	9.2	4,490 (not native population at all)	0	0.0003

The Following table illustrates the Extremes of the Continents −

Continent	Highest Point	Elevation in Meter	Location	Lowest Point	Elevation in Meter	Location
Asia	Mt. Everest	8,848	Nepal	Dead Sea	-427	Israel & Jordan
Africa	Mt Kilimanjaro	5,895	Tanzania	Lake Assal	-155	Djibouti
North America	Mt. McKinley (Denali)	6,198	Alaska (USA)	Death Valley	-86	California (USA)
South America	Aconcagua	6,960	Argentina	Laguna del Carbon	-105	Argentina
Europe	Mt. Elbrus	5,642	Russia	Caspian Sea	-28	In the Russia Part
Australia	Puncak Jaya	4,884	Indonesia	Lake Eyre	-15	Australia
Antarctica	Vinson Massif	4,892	Antarctica	Deep Lake, Vestfold Hills	-50	Antarctica

Earth's wind system

• Air in motion is known as wind. Wind plays a significant role in determining the weather system of a given region.

• Because of the rotation of the Earth, wind deflects to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and left in the Southern Hemisphere. The phenomena first reported by Coriolis and hence it is known as Coriolis Force.

• To read the wind direction, weather vanes are used; however, at the airport, windsocks are used (indicated the wind direction).

• Anemometer is used to measure the wind speed.

Types of Winds

• Winds normally are categorized as −

  • Primary Winds: It is also known as Prevailing Winds and Planetary Winds.

  • Secondary winds: It is also known as Periodic Winds and Seasonal Winds.

  • Local Winds: It is originated because of the local temperature and/or pressure difference.

• Major Planetary Winds (as shown in the following image) are −

  • Polar Easterlies

  • Westerlies (Mid-latitude)

  • Trade Winds (Tropics)

• Seasonal or Periodic Winds blow periodically i.e. for a specific period. For example, Monsoons (as shown in the following image).

• Local Winds, which are originated largely because of the temperature differences are a localized phenomenon. The following map shows the major local winds of the world −

Local Winds	Region/Location
Chinook	Canada & USA (Rockies Mountain Region)
Santa Anas	California (USA)
Pampero	Argentina (South America)
Zonda	Argentina (South America)
Norte	Mexico (Central America)
Papagayo	Mexico (Central America)
Foehn	Switzerland (Alps Region)
Salano	South Spain
Mistral	France
Tramontana	North Italy
Levant	South France
Helm	England
Etesian	Greece
Berg	South Africa
Sirocco	Sahara Region (North Africa)
Khamsin	Egypt
Gibli	Tunisia
Harmattan (also known as Doctor Wind)	West Africa
Bora	South & South Eastern Europe
Loo	Northern India & Pakistan
Simoon	Arabia
Buran (also known as Purga)	East Asia
Karaburan	Central Asia
Brickfielder	Victoria (Australia)
Norwester	New Zealand

The highlighted terms (blue in color) are shown in the map given above.

Jet Streams

• Jet streams are narrow and meandered strip of fast blowing air currents found in the upper altitude (i.e. upper troposphere or lower stratosphere).

El Niño

• El Niño, also known as El Niño Southern Oscillation (or ENSO), refers to the cycle of warm and cold temperatures, as measured by sea surface temperature, of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean. However, the cool phase of ENSO is known as "La Niña."

• El Niño is accompanied by high air pressure in the western Pacific and low air pressure in the eastern Pacific (as shown in the following image).

Cyclone

• Cyclone is a large-scale air mass that keeps rotating around a strong center of low pressure. It rotates counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

• In the northeastern Pacific oceans and the Atlantic Ocean, the tropical cyclone is known as “Hurricane.”

• In the Indian and south Pacific Oceans, the tropical cyclone is called as “Cyclone,” and in the northwestern Pacific Ocean it is known as “Typhoon.”

• In the South Indian Ocean (specifically South-west of Australia), a tropical cyclone is known as “Willy-Willy.”

Anticyclone

• Anticyclone is a large-scale wind system that circulates around a central region of high atmospheric pressure. It rotates clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and anti-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere (the following image illustrates the comparative structure of cyclone and anti-cyclone).

Earth's atmosphere

• The composition of the Earth’s atmosphere changes with the altitude.

• The major constituents of the Earth’s atmosphere are −

  • Nitrogen – 78.09%

  • Oxygen – 20.95%

  • Argon – 0.93%

  • Carbon Dioxide – 0.039% (remaining other gasses)

• The pressure exerted by the weight of air at a given point is known as “Atmospheric Pressure” or “Barometric Pressure.”

• With increasing altitude, the atmospheric pressure decreases.

• On an average, a column of air (which is normally one square centimeter in cross-section), measured at the sea level, has the weight of about 1.03 kg (about 10.1 N).

• The Average Air Pressure is about 14.70 pounds per square inch, (equivalent to 1,013.25 × 103 dynes per square centimeter or 1,013.25 millibars) at the sea level.

• A visible mass of condensed vapor floating above the general level of the ground is known as Cloud.

• Based on the altitude, cloud is classified as −

  • High Altitude Cloud: For example, Cirrus, Cirrocumulus, & Cirrostratus.

  • Middle Altitude Cloud: For example, Altostratus and Altocumulus.

  • Low Altitude Cloud: Stratus, Stratocumulus, Cumulus, and Nimbostratus (it can be also seen in the middle altitude).

  • Vertical: Cumulonimbus

• • The structure of the atmosphere is classified into the following layers −

    • Troposphere: 0 to 12 km

    • Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km

    • Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km

    • Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km

    • Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km

  Troposphere

  • Troposphere is the closest to the Earth’s surface and contains water vapor (clouds), moisture, dust, etc.

  • Most of the weather phenomena take place in Troposphere.

  

  • Height of the Troposphere varies i.e. at the equator, it is measured about 18 km and at the poles, it is 12 km.

  • Tropopause is the transitional zone that separates Troposphere and Stratosphere.

  Stratosphere

  • Stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of the Earth’s Atmosphere that goes up to 50 km.

  • Stratosphere contains Ozone (O₃) Layer that absorbs the ultraviolet rays (coming through the Sun rays) and protects life on the Earth.

  • As the ultraviolet radiation absorbs in Stratosphere, therefore the temperature rises with increasing altitude.

  • The Stratopause is the transitional zone that separates Stratosphere and Mesosphere.

  Mesosphere

  • Mesosphere, present above the Stratosphere, extends up to (from 50 km to) 80 km.

  • Temperature in the Mesosphere decreases with increasing altitude.

  • Mesopause is the transitional zone that separates Mesosphere and Thermosphere.

  Thermosphere

  • Above the Mesosphere, Thermosphere is the second-highest layer that starts at the altitude of 80 km and extends up to (roughly) 700 km (however, it varies between 500 and 1000 km).

  • The lower part of the Thermosphere (roughly between 80 km and 550 km) contains ions and known as Ionosphere.

  • The temperature of the Thermosphere rises with increasing altitude.

  • Thermopause is the transitional zone that separates Thermosphere and Exosphere.

  Exosphere

  • Exosphere is the highest or outermost layer of the Earth’s atmosphere that extends (starting from 700 km altitude) up to 10,000 km where it ultimately merges into the solar wind.

  • Major constituents of the Exosphere are helium, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.

  • The phenomena of Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis can be seen in the lower part of the Exosphere (merged with upper part of the Thermosphere).

  

  • The Satellite (orbiting the Earth) is normally placed in the Exosphere (as shown in the image given above).

Earth movement

• The Earth’s rotation on its axis causes day and night.

• The Earth’s revolution (in its orbit around the Sun) causes change in seasons.

• When nights and days are equal is known as ‘Equinoxes.’ During the equinox’s time, the Sun shines exactly over the equator.

• March 21 (of every year) is known as the vernal (spring) equinox and September 23 (of every year) is known as the autumnal equinox.

• When the difference between the length of day and night is maximum is known as ‘Solstice.’

• During the solstice time, the Sun shines over the tropics (either on Tropic of Cancer or Tropic Capricorn).

• 23.50⁰ North represents ‘Tropic of Cancer.’ On June 21, the Sun shines over the Tropic of Cancer and it is known as the longest day of the year.

• June 21 is known as the Summer Solstice.

• 23.50⁰ South represents ‘Tropic of Capricorn.’ On December 21, the Sun shines over the Tropic of Capricorn and it is known as the longest night of the year.

• December 21 is known as Winter Solstice.

• When light of a celestial body is obscured by another celestial body, the situation is known as ‘Eclipse.’

• When the Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon, it is known as “Lunar Eclipse.”

• When the Moon come between the Sun and the Earth, it is known as “Solar Eclipse.”

Geological time scale

The following table describes Geological Time Scale in brief −

Era	Period	Period	Age (as Million Years Ago – MYA)	Major Events
Cenozoic It is the Age of Mammals. (about 65.5 MYA to Present Day)	Quaternary	Holocene	0.01 MYA to present	End of the Ice Age and dominance of human beings.
		Pleistocene	1.6 MYA	Ice Age began and the earliest human appeared.
	Tertiary	Pliocene	5.3 MYA	Trace of human ancestors.
		Miocene	23.7 MYA	Abundance of grass.
		Oligocene	36.6 MYA	Dominance of mammals.
		Eocene	57.8 MYA	Extinction incident
		Paleocene	65.5 MYA	First large mammals evidenced.
Mesozoic Age of Reptiles. (about 245 MYA to 65.5 MYA	Cretaceous	Extinction of Dinosaurs	144 MYA	Flowering plants appeared.
	Jurassic		208 MYA	First birds appeared.
	Triassi	First Dinosaurs	245 MYA	Reptiles were dominant and evidence of first mammals.
Paleozoic (about 570 MYA to 245 MYA)	Permian	Age of Amphibians	286 MYA
	Carboniferous		360 MYA	First Reptile and large fish appeared.
	Devonian	Age of Fishes	408 MYA	First land animal appeared.
	Silurian		438 MYA	First insects, land plants, & jawed fish appeared.
	Ordovician		505 MYA	Extinction incident evidenced.
	Cambrian		570 MYA	First fungi evidenced.
Precambrian (about 4600 MYA to 570 MYA)	Proterozoic		2500 MYA	First multicellular life appeared.
	Achean		3800 MYA	First unicellular life appeared.
	Hadean	Priscoan	4600 MYA	Earth cooled and atmosphere and Ocean formed

ನ್ಯೂಕ್ಲಿಯರ್ ಪುಟ್ ಬಾಲ್ ನ ಮಾಹಿತಿ

ಪೆಂಟಗನ್ ಇತ್ತೀಚೆಗೆ ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷರ ಪರಮಾಣು ಫುಟ್ಬಾಲ್ ಸುತ್ತಲಿನ ಸುರಕ್ಷತಾ ಪ್ರೋಟೋಕಾಲ್ಗಳನ್ನು ಮೌಲ್ಯಮಾಪನ ಮಾಡುವುದಾಗಿ ಹೇಳಿದೆ.  ಇದು ಸ್ಟ್ರೈಕ್‌ಗೆ ಅಗತ್ಯವಿರುವ ಕೋಡ್‌ಗಳನ್ನು ಒಳಗೊಂಡಿದೆ.  ಜನವರಿ 6, 2021 ರಂದು ಕ್ಯಾಪಿಟಲ್‌ಗೆ ನುಗ್ಗಿದ ದಂಗೆಕೋರರ ವ್ಯಾಪ್ತಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಒಂದು ಬ್ರೀಫ್‌ಕೇಸ್ ಬಂದ ನಂತರ ಇದು ಸಂಭವಿಸಿತು.

 ನ್ಯೂಕ್ಲಿಯರ್ ಫುಟ್ಬಾಲ್ ಒಂದು ಬ್ರೀಫ್ಕೇಸ್ ಆಗಿದ್ದು ಅದು ಯುನೈಟೆಡ್ ಸ್ಟೇಟ್ಸ್ನ ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷರು ಬಳಸಬೇಕಾದ ವಸ್ತುಗಳನ್ನು ಒಳಗೊಂಡಿದೆ, ಇದರಿಂದಾಗಿ ಅವನು/ಅವಳು ಪರಮಾಣು ಕಮಾಂಡ್ ಸೆಂಟರ್ಗಳಿಂದ ದೂರದಲ್ಲಿರುವಾಗ ಯಾವುದೇ ಪರಮಾಣು ದಾಳಿಯನ್ನು ಅಧಿಕೃತಗೊಳಿಸಬಹುದು.

 ಯುನೈಟೆಡ್ ಸ್ಟೇಟ್ಸ್ನ ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷರು ಮಿಲಿಟರಿ ನೆರವಿನೊಂದಿಗೆ, ಯಾವಾಗಲೂ ಪರಮಾಣು ಶಸ್ತ್ರಾಸ್ತ್ರಗಳ ಉಡಾವಣಾ ಸಂಕೇತಗಳನ್ನು ಒಳಗೊಂಡಿರುವ ಫುಟ್ಬಾಲ್ ಅನ್ನು ಒಯ್ಯುತ್ತಾರೆ.

 ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಪತಿಗಳಿಗೆ ಪರಮಾಣು ಅಸ್ತ್ರವನ್ನು ಉಡಾಯಿಸುವ ಸಂಪೂರ್ಣ ಅಧಿಕಾರವಿದೆ.  ಇದಕ್ಕಾಗಿ ಅವರು ಈ ಕೆಳಗಿನ ಹಂತಗಳನ್ನು ಅನುಸರಿಸುತ್ತಾರೆ

 i) ಸಲಹೆಗಾರರೊಂದಿಗೆ ಭೇಟಿ: ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷರು ಸಲಹೆಗಾರರನ್ನು ಭೇಟಿಯಾಗುತ್ತಾರೆ ಅಥವಾ ಫೋನ್ ಕರೆ ಮೂಲಕ ನಡೆಸಬಹುದು.  ಕ್ಷೇತ್ರದಲ್ಲಿ ಇರುವವರ ಅಂತಿಮ ಮಾತು ಕೂಡ ಮುಖ್ಯವಾಗಿದೆ.  ಇದಲ್ಲದೆ ಅವರು ಅವನನ್ನು/ಅವಳನ್ನು ನೆಲದ ವಾಸ್ತವತೆಯ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಅಪ್‌ಡೇಟ್ ಮಾಡುತ್ತಾರೆ

 ii) ಲಾಂಚ್ ಆರ್ಡರ್ ನೀಡಲಾಗಿದೆ: ಇದನ್ನು ಸುರಕ್ಷಿತ ಸ್ಟೇಷನ್ ಅಥವಾ ಪೋರ್ಟಬಲ್ ನ್ಯೂಕ್ಲಿಯರ್ ಫುಟ್ಬಾಲ್ ನೀಡಲಿದೆ.  ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷರ ಗುರುತನ್ನು ದೃ isೀಕರಿಸಲಾಗಿದೆ ಮತ್ತು ಉಡಾವಣಾ ಸಂಕೇತಗಳನ್ನು ಪೆಂಟಗನ್‌ನ ಯುದ್ಧ ಕೋಣೆಗೆ ಕಳುಹಿಸಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.

 iii) ಆದೇಶ ಹೊರಬಿದ್ದಿದೆ: ಪೆಂಟಗನ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿನ ವಾರ್ ರೂಮ್ ಲಾಂಚ್ ಆರ್ಡರ್‌ಗಳನ್ನು ಎನ್‌ಕ್ರಿಪ್ಟ್ ಮಾಡಿದೆ, ಇದರಲ್ಲಿ ಗುರಿಗಳು, ಉಡಾವಣೆ ಮಾಡಲು ಸಮಯ ಮತ್ತು ಕ್ಷಿಪಣಿಗಳನ್ನು ಅನ್ಲಾಕ್ ಮಾಡಲು ದೃಶ್ಯೀಕರಣ ಕೋಡ್‌ಗಳು ಸೇರಿವೆ.

 iv) ಲಾಂಚ್ ತಯಾರಿ: ಲಾಂಚ್ ಸಿಬ್ಬಂದಿ ದೃ coೀಕರಣ ಸಂಕೇತಗಳನ್ನು ಖಚಿತಪಡಿಸುತ್ತಾರೆ ಮತ್ತು ಕ್ಷಿಪಣಿಗಳನ್ನು ಅನ್ಲಾಕ್ ಮಾಡಲು ಗುರಿ ಮಾಹಿತಿಯನ್ನು ನಮೂದಿಸುತ್ತಾರೆ.  ಆದಾಗ್ಯೂ, ರಕ್ಷಣಾ ಕಾರ್ಯದರ್ಶಿಯ ಭಿನ್ನಾಭಿಪ್ರಾಯದಿಂದ ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷರ ಆದೇಶದ ಮೇಲೆ ಪರಿಣಾಮ ಬೀರಬಹುದು ಮತ್ತು ಉಪರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಪತಿ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ 25 ರ ಸೆಕ್ಷನ್ 4 ರ ಅಡಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಪತಿಯು ತನ್ನ ಕರ್ತವ್ಯಗಳನ್ನು ನಿರ್ವಹಿಸಲು ಅಸಮರ್ಥನೆಂದು ಘೋಷಿಸಬಹುದು.  ಅಂತಹ ಸಂದರ್ಭಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಮಾತ್ರ ಪರಮಾಣು ದಾಳಿಯನ್ನು ನಿಲ್ಲಿಸಬಹುದು.

 v) ಪರಮಾಣು ಅಸ್ತ್ರವನ್ನು ಉಡಾಯಿಸಲಾಗಿದೆ

 ವಾಷಿಂಗ್ಟನ್ ಡಿಸಿ ಯ ಯುನೈಟೆಡ್ ಸ್ಟೇಟ್ಸ್ ಕ್ಯಾಪಿಟಲ್ ನಲ್ಲಿ ಕಾಂಗ್ರೆಸ್ ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷರು ಮಾಜಿ ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷ ಡೊನಾಲ್ಡ್ ಟ್ರಂಪ್ ಅವರನ್ನು ಬೆಂಬಲಿಸುವ ಗುಂಪೊಂದು ದಾಳಿ ಮಾಡಿತು.  ಚುನಾವಣಾ ಮತಗಳನ್ನು ಎಣಿಸುವ ಮೂಲಕ ಜೋ ಬಿಡೆನ್ ಅವರ ವಿಜಯವನ್ನು ಅನುಮೋದಿಸುವ ಕಾಂಗ್ರೆಸ್ ಜಂಟಿ ಅಧಿವೇಶನವನ್ನು ಅಡ್ಡಿಪಡಿಸುವ ಮೂಲಕ ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷೀಯ ಚುನಾವಣೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಅವರ ಸೋಲನ್ನು ತಿರಸ್ಕರಿಸಲು ಅವರು ಬಯಸಿದರು.

 ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷೀಯ ತುರ್ತುಸ್ಥಿತಿ ಸ್ಯಾಚೆಲ್ ಕಳೆದುಹೋದರೆ ಅಥವಾ ರಾಜಿ ಮಾಡಿಕೊಂಡಲ್ಲಿ ಪೆಂಟಗನ್ ಅಧಿಕಾರಿಗಳು ಎಷ್ಟು ಮಟ್ಟಿಗೆ ಪತ್ತೆ ಹಚ್ಚಬಹುದು ಮತ್ತು ಪ್ರತಿಕ್ರಿಯಿಸಬಹುದು ಎಂದು ಪೆಂಟಗನ್ ಹೇಳಿದೆ.  ಆ ದಿನದಂದು ಉಪಾಧ್ಯಕ್ಷ ಮೈಕ್ ಪೆನ್ಸ್ ಬ್ಯಾಕ್ಅಪ್ ನ್ಯೂಕ್ಲಿಯರ್ ಫುಟ್ಬಾಲ್ ಹೊತ್ತ ಮಿಲಿಟರಿ ಸಹಾಯಕರ ಜೊತೆಗಿದ್ದರು, ಪೆಂಟಗನ್ ಅಂತಹ ಪರೀಕ್ಷೆಯನ್ನು ನಡೆಸಲು ಬಯಸುತ್ತದೆ.

what is nuclear football and how is it related to the US President

The Pentagon has recently said that it would be evaluating the safety protocols surrounding the President's nuclear football. This contains the codes that may be needed for a strike. This happened after one of the briefcases nearly came in range of the rioters storming the Capitol on January 6, 2021. 

The nuclear football is a briefcase which contains the things to be used by the President of the United States so that he can authorise any nuclear attack while he/she is away from the nuclear command centers.

The President of the United States is accompanied by military aid, always carrying a football consisting of launch codes for nuclear weapons.

The President has the whole- sole authority to launch the nuclear weapon. For this he follows the following steps

i) Meeting with the advisors: The President meets the advisors or can conduct it over a phone call. The final word of those who are in the field is also important. Moreover they update him/her about the ground reality

ii)Launch order given: It is to be given by a secure station or a portable nuclear football. The president's ID is confirmed and the launch codes are sent to the Pentagon's war room. 

iii) The order is out: The War Room at Pentagon has encrypted launch orders that include targets, time to launch and authentication codes to unlock missiles.

iv) Launch Preparation: Launch crew confirms authentication codes and enters target information to unlock the missiles. However the order of the President can be affected by the Defence Secretary's disagreement and the vice President can pass a motion under Section 4 of Amendment 25 declaring the President incapable of carrying out his/her duties. Only in such cases the nuclear attack can be halted.

v)The nuclear weapon is launched

It was in the United States Capitol in Washington DC that the Congress men were attacked by a mob supporting the ex President Donald Trump. They wished to overturn his defeat in the presidential elections by disrupting the joint session of the Congress approving the victory of Joe Biden by counting of the Electoral votes. 

The Pentagon after that said that it would evaluate the extent to which the Pentagon officials could detect and respond in case the Presidential Emergency Satchel were lost or compromised with. As on that day Vice President Mike Pence was accompanied by the military aide carrying a backup nuclear football, the Pentagon wishes to run such a test. 

The universe and planet (geography)

• Pythagoras, who was an Ionian Greek philosopher and mathematician, first used the term “COSMOS” for the order of the Universe.

• Cosmology is the discipline that describes the large scale properties of the universe as a whole.

• The distance covered by light in one year is known as “Light Year.” The Velocity of light is 300,000 km/s.

• The distance between the Sun and the Earth is known as “Astronomical Unit.” One astronomical unit is (roughly) equal to 149.6 million kilometers.

• Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) is an Explorer Mission of National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). It is launched for the study and measurement of cosmology.

• Professor Sir Fred Hoyle, who was an English astronomer, coined the term “Big Bang” to explain a scientific theory on the creation of cosmos.

• Galaxy is a huge collection of stellar and interstellar matter, which are bound together by its own gravity in the Space. There are several galaxies in the universe, for example, Milky Way.

• The name galaxy where we live is ‘Milky Way.’

• The largest galaxy is ‘Andromeda Galaxy.’ It is also the closest to Milky Way. Milky Way is the second largest galaxy.

• The radius of Milky Way is about 50,000 light years.

• The Solar System is a part of Milky Way.

• The Sun takes 225 million light years to complete one circuit.

• The collapsed stars, which are immeasurably dense and having huge gravitational force (even light cannot escape rather get absorbed) are known as “Black Holes.”

• Quasar is a massive and extremely remote celestial object that keeps emitting remarkably large amounts of energy. Typically, it has a star like image, which can be seen through the telescope.

• Constellation is a group of stars being arranged in a pictorial configuration. It was basically observed by the ancient astronomers. For example, Sirius (Canis Major), Canopus (Carina), Turus (Bootes), etc.

• Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) is the British Astronomy center, located at Chajnantor (at an altitude of about 5,000 meters), in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile.

• Edwin Hubble, who was an American astronomer, first studied galaxies in detail. Based on Shape, Edwin classified galaxies as Elliptical, Spiral, and Barred Spiral.

• At the end of life-cycle, when a star loses its light and the density increases (very high), by this time, it is largely composed of neutrons and hence known as ‘Neutron Star.’

• Most likely, the rotating neutron star emits intermittent radio signals, is known as ‘Pulsar.’

• A star with low temperature and small mass (glowing feebly) is known as ‘Red Dwarf.’

• A star that suddenly increases its brightness (greatly) because of a catastrophic explosion and ejects most of its mass is known as ‘Supernova.’

• Satellites (or Moons) are the bodies that keep revolving around their respective planets. For example, Moon revolves around the Earth, etc.

• The Sun is the closest star to the Earth (at the distance of about 149,600,000 km).

• Located at the distance of about 4.24 light-years, Proxima Centauri is the second closest star to the Earth.

• The Sun is made up of extremely hot gasses and its glowing surface is known as the ‘Photosphere.’ The layer immediately above the photosphere is known as ‘Chromosphere’ (sphere of color).

• The Chromosphere is 10,000 km thick transparent shell of plasma.

• The Outermost layer of the Sun is known as the ‘Corona.’

• Temperature of the outer surface is 6,0000 C and interior temperature is 15,000,0000 C.

• The rotation period of the Sun is 25 days, 9 hours, and 7 minutes.

• The traveling speed of the Sun’s Rays is 30,000 m/s.

• The time taken by Sun’s Rays to reach the Earth is 8 minutes and 16.6 seconds.

• The Sun is largely composed (chemically) of Hydrogen (71%), Helium (26.5%), and some other elements (2.5%).

• Sometimes, in the photosphere, some patches of gas, which is cooler that its surrounding (gas) are known as the ‘Sunspots.’

• The Planets are the celestial bodies that revolve around the Sun as well as (at the same time) rotate on their imaginary axis.

• • There are eight planets namely (arranged in the order of increasing distance from the Sun) −

    • Mercury

    • Venus

    • Earth

    • Mars

    • Jupiter

    • Saturn

    • Uranus

    • Neptune

  • The largest planet is Jupiter and Mercury is the smallest planet of the system.

  

  Mercury

  • Mercury is the nearest to the Sun.

  • Mercury takes 58.65 Earth days to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 88 days to complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).

  • Mercury is the fastest planet and it has no moon (satellite).

  Venus

  • Venus, which is also popular as an evening star and morning star, is the brightest celestial body in the universe after Sun and Moon.

  • Venus is the Hottest Planet of the solar system. It is closest to the Earth.

  • Venus takes 243 Earth days to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 224.7 days to complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).

  • Venus has no satellite and it spins in the opposite direction of the Earth’s spin.

  • Venus is named after the Roman goddess of Beauty.

  Earth

  • Earth is the third planet from the Sun.

  • By the time, Earth is the only planet where life exists.

  • Earth takes 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 40 seconds to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 365.26 days to complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).

  • Mass of the Earth is 5.98 x 1024 kg and its diameter is 12,756 km.

  • Escape Velocity of the Earth is 11,200 m/s.

  • Obliquity (i.e. tilt of axis degrees) of the Earth is 23.40.

  • Mean density of the Earth is 5.514 g/cm3 and the surface is 510,072,000 km2.

  • Mean surface temperature of the Earth is 281 K; the mean maximum surface temperature is 310 K and the mean minimum surface temperature is 260 K.

  • The major atmospheric components of the Earth are Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (20.95%), Argon (0.930%), and Carbon Dioxide (0.039%).

  Moon

  • Moon is the only known satellite of the Earth.

  • Moons rotation time (on its axis) and revolution time (around the Earth) is same (i.e. 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and 11.47 seconds. This is the reason that we always see only one side of the Moon.

  • Moon revolves around the Earth once in every 27.3 days, which is known as ‘Sidereal Month;’ however, it takes 29.5 days to return to the same point on the celestial sphere in reference to the Sun (due to revolution motion of the Earth around the Sun) and it is known as ‘Synodic Month.’

  • When two full Moons occur in the same month, it is known as ‘Blue Moon.’

  • A Full Moon is basically the lunar phase that occurs when the Moon is completely illuminated as seen from the Earth.

  • As shown in the following image, the Lunar Phase or phase of the moon, is the shape of the illuminated portion of the Moon that is visible from the Earth. As Moon revolves, the lunar phases change cyclically and we can see from the full moon (full visible) to the new moon (not at all visible).

  

  Mars

  • Mars is known as the ‘Red Planet’ of the solar system.

  • Mars takes 24 hours, 37 minutes, and 30 seconds to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 687 days to complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).

  • Mars has two satellites namely Phobos (means fear) and Deimos (means terror).

  Jupiter

  • Jupiter takes 9 hours, 50 minutes, and 30 seconds to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 12 earth years to complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).

  • Jupiter has 63 natural satellites/moon, significant of them are Europa, Ganymede, Callisto, etc. Among all, Ganymede is the largest satellite in the whole solar system.

  Saturn

  • Saturn is the largest planet after Jupiter in the solar system.

  • Saturn is popular for its spectacular rings system.

  • The rings system of Saturn is made up of a variety of separate particles that rotate in circular orbits independently.

  • Saturn takes 10 hours and 14 minutes to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 30 years to complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).

  • Saturn has total 47 satellites/moons; among them, Titan is the biggest satellite.

  Uranus

  • Uranus is first identified as planet by William Herschel in 1781.

  • Like Saturn, Uranus also has a system of five faint rings.

  • Uranus takes 16 hours to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 84 years to complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).

  • Uranus has 27 satellites; significant of them are Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, etc.

  Neptune

  • Neptune is the farthest planet which appears greenish through a telescope.

  • Neptune is discovered by Berlin scientist J. G. Galle in 1846.

  • Neptune takes 18 hours to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 165 years to complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).

  • Neptune has 13 satellites/moons; significant of them are ‘Triton’ and ‘Nereid.’

  • Until 2006, there were nine planets (including Pluto), but in 2006, the ninth planet Pluto is categorized as the dwarf planet by International Astronomical Union (IAU).

  Asteroids

  • Asteroids, also known as small planets or planetoids, are the rocky debris largely found between the planets Mars and Jupiter. These are too small to have their own atmosphere (as shown in the following image).

  

  • The Asteroids revolve around the Sun, which varies from 3 to 10 years.

  • By the time, more than 450,000 Asteroids are discovered; the largest Asteroid is Ceres, which diameter is about 1,025 km.

  Meteors

  • Meteors, also popular as ‘Shooting Star’ or ‘Falling Star,’ is the passage of a comet, asteroid, or meteoroid into the Earth's atmosphere. It is heated (because of the collisions with air particles) and normally seen in the upper atmosphere (as shown in the following image).

  

  • Meteoroids are the small rocky or metallic bodies that normally travel through outer space. Meteoroids are expressively smaller than asteroids, and its size ranges from small grains to 1-meter-wide objects.

  Comets

  • Comets are the icy small Solar System body; normally while passing close to the Sun, heats up and starts to outgas, displaying a visible atmosphere (i.e. basically coma) along with a tail (as shown in the following image – in the insat view).

  

• • Total surface area of the Earth is 510,100,500 sq. km, out of which −

    • The total land area is 148,950,800 sq. km (29.08% of total area) and

    • The total water area is 361,149,700 sq. km (70.92%).

  • Diameter of the Earth at Equator is 12,755 km, at the poles 12,712 km, and mean diameter is 12,734 km.

  

  • Circumference of the Earth at Equator is 40,075 km and at the poles 40,024 km.

  • Equatorial radius of the Earth is 6,377 km.

  • The total mass of the Earth is 5.98 x 1024 kg.

  • Approximate age of the Earth is 4,500 million years.

  • The mean velocity of the Earth in its orbit (around the Sun) is 107,218 km/h.

  • The most abundant elements of the Earth are

    • Iron (about 32.5%),

    • Oxygen (29.8%),

    • Silicon (15.6%), and

    • Magnesium (13.9%)

  Structure of Earth

  • The Earth is structured in three layers namely −

    • Crust,

    • Mantle, and

    • Core – Further classified as outer core (fluid layer) and inner core (solid layer).

  

  • The Crust is the uppermost layer of the Earth, largely composed of rocks. Its thickness ranges from 5 km to 60 km and density ranges from 2.7 to 3.

  • The Crust shares about 1 percent of Earth’s volume.

  • The Crust is categorized as ‘Continental Crust’ and ‘Oceanic Crust.’

  • The thickness of Continental Crust ranges from 30 km to 50 km. It is largely composed by granites, which density (i.e. 2.7) is lesser than the Oceanic Crust.

  • The thickness of Oceanic Crust ranges from 5 km to 10 km and it is composed primarily of basalt, diabase, and gabbro.

  • The density of Oceanic Crust is 3.0.

  • The most abundant element of Crust is Oxygen (46.6%) followed by Silicon (27.7%) and Aluminum (8.1%).

  • The Crust is also known as ‘Sial’ (i.e. Silicon and Aluminum)

  • The boundary between the Crust and the Mantle is known as the “Mohorovičić Discontinuity.”

  • The Mantle is located between the Crust and the (Outer) Core, which thickness is about 2885 km.

  • The Mantle shares about 83% of the Earth’s volume and about 65% of the mass.

  • The density of Mantle is about 3.4 g/cm3.

  • The upper layer of Mantle is known as ‘Asthenosphere.’

  • The Crust and the upper part of Mantle collectively known as ‘Lithosphere.’

  • The Core is mostly composed of iron and nickel; therefore, it is also known as ‘Nife’ (i.e. Nickel and Ferrous).

  • The Core shares about 16% of Earth’s total volume and 30% of the mass.

  • The thickness of the Core is about 3,400 km from the Mantle (likewise, the total depth from the Surface of the Earth is 6,300 km).

  • Core is categorized as outer core (which is in molten state) and inner core (which is in solid state).

  • Density of the inner core is about 13 g/cm3.

The Schedule of the Indian Constitution −

The following table describes the Schedule of the Indian Constitution −

Schedule	Contains
First Schedule	Lists the states and territories of India (also about their changes)
Second Schedule	Lists the salaries of officials holding public office, Presidents, judges, and Comptroller and Auditor General of India
Third Schedule	Forms of oaths and Affirmations of offices for elected officials including judges
Fourth Schedule	Allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha (the Upper House of Parliament) per State or Union Territory
Fifth Schedule	Provisions as to the Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes
Sixth Schedule	Provisions as to the Administration of Tribal Areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram
Seventh Schedule	The Union (central government), state, and concurrent lists of responsibilities
Eight Schedule	The Languages
Ninth Schedule	Validation of certain Acts and Regulations
Tenth Schedule	"Anti-defection" provisions for the Members of Parliament and the Members of the State Legislatures
Eleventh Schedule	Panchayat Raj (rural local government)
Twelfth Schedule	Municipalities (urban local government)

The Parts and Articles of the Indian Constitutions −

The following table enlists the Parts and Articles of the Indian Constitutions −

Part	Contains	Articles
Part I	Union and its Territory	1 to 4
Part II	Citizenship	5 to 11
Part III	Fundamental Rights	12 to 35
Part IV	Directive Principles of State Policy	36 to 51
Part IVA	Fundamental Duties	51A
Part V	The Union	52 to 151
Part VI	The States	152 to 237
Part VII	States in the B part of the First schedule (repealed by 7th Amendment)
Part VIII	The Union Territories	239 to 242
Part IX	The Panchayats	243 to 243O
Part IXA	The Municipalities	243P to 243ZG
Part IXB	The Co-operative Societies	243ZH to 243ZT
Part X	The scheduled and Tribal Areas	244 to 244A
Part XI	Relations between the Union and the States	245 to 263
Part XII	Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits	264 to 300A
Part XIII	Trade and Commerce within the territory of India	301 to 307
Part XIV	Services Under the Union, the States	308 to 323
Part XIVA	Tribunals	323A to 323B
Part XV	Elections	324 to 329A
Part XVI	Special Provisions Relating to certain Classes	330 to 342
Part XVII	Languages	343 to 351
Part XVIII	Emergency Provisions	352 to 360
Part XIX	Miscellaneous	361 to 367
Part XX	Amendment of the Constitution	368
Part XXI	Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions	369 to 392
Part XXII	Short title, date of commencement, etc.	393 to 395

The major Revolutionary Organizations of Modern India −

The following table describes the major Revolutionary Organizations of Modern India −

Name	Founder	Place	Year
Vyayam Mandala	Chapekar Brothers	Poona	1896-97
Mitra Mela (from 1903, it is transformed as Abhinav Bharat Society/Young India Society)	Savarkar Brothers	Nasik	1901
Anushilan Samiti	Satish Chandra Basu * Pramathanath Mitra	Calcutta	1902
Swadesh Bandhab Samiti	Ashwini Kumar Dutta	N/A	1905
Hindustan Republican Association (HRA)	Sachindra Nath Sanyal, Narendra Mohan Sen, Pratul Ganguly	Kanpur	1924
Bharat Naujawan Sabha	Bhagat Singh	Lahore	1926
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association Army (HSRA)	Chandrasekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Thapar	New Delhi	1928
Indian Home Rule Society	Shyamji Krishna Varma	London	1905
Indian Independence League	Taraknath Das	California (USA)	1907
Gadar Party	Lala Hardayal	USA & Canada	1913

The major Lower Caste Movements of Modern India −

The following table describes the major Lower Caste Movements of Modern India −

Name	Founder	Place	Year
Satyashodhak Samaj	Jyotirao Phule	Maharashtra	1873
Aruvippuram Movement	Sri Narayana Guru	Aruvippuram, Kerala	1888
The Depressed Class Mission Society	Mahrshi Vitthal Ramji Shinde	Bombay	1906
Justice Party (officially the South Indian Liberal Federation)	T. M. Nair and P. Theagaraya Chetty	Madras, Tamil Nadu	1916
Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha	B. R. Ambedkar	Bombay	1924
Self-Respect Movement	E. V. Ramasamy (also called as Periyar by his devoted followers)	Madras, Tamil Nadu	1925
Harijan Sevak Sangh	Mahatma Gandhi	Pune	1932

The major Socio-Religious Movements of Modern India −

The following table describes the major Socio-Religious Movements of Modern India −

Name	Founder	Place	Year
Atmiya Sabha	Rammohan Roy	Calcutta	1815
Brahmo Samaj	Rammohan Roy	Calcutta	1828
Dharma Sabha	Radhakant Dev	Calcutta	1829
Tattvabodhini Sabha	Debendranath Tagore	Calcutta	1839
Manav Dharma Sabha	Mehtaji Durgaram Manchharam	Surat	1844
Paramhansa Mandli	Dadoba Pandurang	Bombay	1849
Radha Swami Satsang	Tulsi Ram	Agra	1861
Brahmo Samaj of India	Keshub Chunder Sen	Calcutta	1866
Dar-ul-Ulum	Muhammad Qasim Nanotvi,Rasheed Ahmed Gangohi and 'Abid Husaiyn	Deoband (a town in Saharanpur, UP)	1866
Prarthna Samaj	Dr. Atmaram Pandurang	Bombay	1867
Arya Samaj	Swami Dayananda	Bombay	1875
Theosophical Society	Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, Colonel Henry Steel Olcott, William Quan Judge	New York City, United States	1875
Sadharan Brahmo Samaj	Ananda Mohan Bose, Sib Chandra Deb and Umesh Chandra Dutta	Calcutta	1878
Deccan Education Society	Vishnushastri Chiplunkar, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar	Pune	1884
Muhammadan Educational Conference	Sir Syed Ahmad Khan	Aligarh	1886
Deva Samaj	Shiv Narayan Agnihotri	Lahore	1887
Ramakrishna Mission	Swami Vivekanand	Belur	1897
Ramakrishna Mission	Swami Vivekanand	Belur	1897
Servants of India	Gopal Krishna Gokhale	Pune	1905
Seva Sadan Society	Ramabai Ranade	Pune	1909
Social Service League	Narayan Malhar Joshi	Bombay	1911

The major monuments of India −

The following table enlists the major monuments of India −

Monuments	Constructed by	Location
Nalanda University	Gupta Dynasty	Rajgir, Nalanda (Bihar)
The seven Pagodas of Mahabalipuram	Narasimhavarman II	Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu)
Jagannatha Temple	King Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva (Eastern Ganga Dynasty)	Puri, Odisha
Lingaraj Temple	Somavamsi Dynasty	Bhubaneswar, Odhisha
Khajuraho Group of Monuments	Chandela Dynasty	Chhatarpur, Madhya Pradesh
Brihadeeswara Temple (also known as RajaRajeswara Temple)	Raja Raja Chola I	Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
Ajanta Caves	Satavahana Dynasty later Mauryan Dynasty	Aurangabad, Maharashtra
Ellora Caves	Kalachuri, Chalukya, and Rashtrakuta Dynasties	Aurangabad, Maharashtra
Agra Fort	Mughal Emperor Akbar	Agra, Uttar Pradesh
Thousand Pillars Temple (also known as Rudreshwara Swamy Temple)	Kakatiya Dynasty	Hanamakonda, Telangana
Red Fort	Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan	Delhi
Taj Mahal	Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan	Agra, Uttar Pradesh
Konark Sun Temple	Narasimhadeva I (Eastern Ganga Dynasty)	Konark, Odisha
Fatehpur Sikri	Mughal Emperor Akbar	Agra, UP
Bibi Ka Maqbara	Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb	Aurangabad, Maharashtra
Jama Masjid	Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan	Delhi
Mehrangarh Fort	Rao Jodha	Jodhpur, Rajasthan
Tajmahal	Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan	Agra, Uttar Pradesh
Qutub Minar	Qutubuddin Aibak	Delhi
Makkah Masjid	Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah	Hyderabad, Telangana
Hawa Mahal	Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh	Jaipur, Rajasthan
Moti Masjid	Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan	Agra, Uttar Pradesh
Humayun's Tomb	Akbar and Humayun’s wife Empress Bega Begum	Delhi
Charminar	Quli Qutub Shah	Hyderabad, Telangana
Elephanta Caves	Not exactly known	Mumbai (Harbour), Maharashtra
Bara Imambara	Asaf-ud-Daula (Nawab of Awadh)	Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Dilwara Temples	Vastupal-Tejpal	Mount Abu, Rajasthan
Gateway of India	British Government (Designed by George Wittet)	Mumbai City, Maharashtra
India Gate	Designed by Edwin Lutyens	Delhi
Jantar Mantar	Maharaja Jai Singh	Delhi
Parana Qila (Old Fort)	Shershah Suri	Delhi
Golden Temple	Fourth Sikh guru, Guru Ram Das	Amritsar, Punjab
Victoria Memorial	British Government	Kolkata, West Bengal
Thillai Natarajah Temple	Made collectively by Pallava, Chola, Pandya, etc.	Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu
Group of Hampi Monuments	Vijayanagara Empire	Hampi, Karnataka
Lotus Temple	Architect - Fariborz Sahba	Delhi

The Mughal period authors and their works −

The following table enlists the Mughal period authors and their works −

Author	Works
Gulbadan Begam	Humayun Nama
Abul Fazl	Ain-i-Akbari
	Akbar Nama
Mulla Daud	Tawarikh-i-Alfi
Jahangir	Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri
Abdul Hamid Lahori	Padshah Namah
Inayat Khan	Shah Jahan Namah
Dara Shikoh	Safinat-ul Auliya
	Sakinat-ul Auliya
	Majma-ul-Bahrain
Aurangzeb	Raqqat-e-Alamgiri
Bhimsen	Nuskha-i-Dilkusha
Iswar Das	Futuhat-i-Alamgiri
Babur	Tuzuk-i-Baburi
Amir Khusrau	Tarikh-i-Alai

major country revolutions of the world −

The following table describes major revolutions of the world −

S.No	Name and Explanation
1	The Glorious Revolution or Revolution of 1688 This revolution ended the reign of James II in England and established the reign of William III and Mary II. It also ensured the Parliamentary supremacy over the (British) monarchy.
2	The American Revolution (1765 to 1783) It was American Independence War against the British Rule.
3	The French Revolution (1790s) It was the modern revolution in France that had taken place (roughly) between 1789 and 1799.
4	The Haitian Revolution (1791 to 1804) The revolution was an anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurgence that took place at Saint Domingue (the former French colony).
5	The Russian Revolution (1917) (Also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution) It was revolution that dismantled the Tsarist autocracy and founded the Soviet Union (in 1917).
6	The Cuban Revolution (1953-59) It was an armed revolt under the leadership of Fidel Castro against the Cuban President Fulgencio Batista (basically, the US backed authoritarian government).
7	The Hungarian Revolution (of 1956) It was basically Hungarian Uprising (nationwide) against the government of the Hungarian People's Republic and the Soviet-imposed policies.
8	Iranian Revolution of 1978–79, (also known as Islamic Revolution) The revolution removed the monarchy system and founded the Islamic republic.
9	China's Cultural Revolution (1966) The revolution enforced the communism in the country by removing the capitalist, traditional, and cultural elements.

the major Revolutionary Organizations of Modern India :

The following table describes the major Revolutionary Organizations of Modern India −

Name	Founder	Place	Year
Vyayam Mandala	Chapekar Brothers	Poona	1896-97
Mitra Mela (from 1903, it is transformed as Abhinav Bharat Society/Young India Society)	Savarkar Brothers	Nasik	1901
Anushilan Samiti	Satish Chandra Basu * Pramathanath Mitra	Calcutta	1902
Swadesh Bandhab Samiti	Ashwini Kumar Dutta	N/A	1905
Hindustan Republican Association (HRA)	Sachindra Nath Sanyal, Narendra Mohan Sen, Pratul Ganguly	Kanpur	1924
Bharat Naujawan Sabha	Bhagat Singh	Lahore	1926
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association Army (HSRA)	Chandrasekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Thapar	New Delhi	1928
Indian Home Rule Society	Shyamji Krishna Varma	London	1905
Indian Independence League	Taraknath Das	California (USA)	1907
Gadar Party	Lala Hardayal	USA & Canada	1913

Prime Minister Narendra Modi began his address:- 14 engineering colleges in 8 states will start engineering studies in 5 Indian languages- Hindi-Tamil, Telugu, Marathi and Bangla.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi began his address to the educational community on July 29, 2021 by congratulating all  students on the completion of one year of the new National Education Policy.

The Prime Minister recalled that "in the last one year, all you great personalities, teachers, principals, policy makers of the country have worked very hard in bringing the National Education Policy to the ground."

On the occasion, the Prime Minister launched multiple key initiatives including Academic Bank of Credits, SAFAL, National Digital Education Architecture and National Education Technology Forum (NETF) in the field of education. 

Prime Minister Narendra Modi launches multiple key initiatives including Academic Bank of Credits and National Digital Education Architecture, in the field of education pic.twitter.com/KjtGZibjI1

•During his address, the Prime Minister emphasised that we have to think about the future and said that how far we will go in the future, how much we will achieve  will depend on what kind of education we are giving to our youth today. 

•PM Modi highlighted that the 21st century youth wants to make their own systems, their own world. He highlighted how the youth of the country is breaking through shackles in different ways. He noted that the Indian athletes are doing well at the Tokyo Olympics 2020. 

•He emphasised that they are accelerating Digital India. He said, from robotics to sci-fi, Artificial Intelligence to machine learning, many new milestones are being met. 

•The Prime Minister further said that the youth now need freedom from old shackles and cages and the new 'National Education Policy' assures the youth that the country is now completely with them, with their spirits.

•The Prime Minister stated that the Artificial Intelligence program has just been launched to make the youth future oriented, opening the way for an AI driven economy. 

•The Prime Minister highlighted how we have seen this environment for decades when it was believed that to study well one had to go abroad but now for good studies students from abroad come to India. best institutions come to India. 

•14 engineering colleges in 8 states will start engineering studies in 5 Indian languages- Hindi-Tamil, Telugu, Marathi and Bangla.

•A tool has also been developed for translation of engineering course in 11 Indian languages. The move aims to bridge the educational divide and enable children belonging to even poor and vulnerable families gain access to quality education. 

•Indian Sign Language has also been given the status of a language subject for the first time. Now students will be able to read it as a language also.

Indian Sign language has been designated as a subject now. Students can opt to study this. It will promote Indian sign language and will help differently-abled people: PM Modi

•The decision is expected to give a huge boost to Indian Sign Language and help differently abled people in the country. 

•The Prime Minister noted that two new initiatives -National Digital Education Architecture (NDEAR) and National Education Technology Forum (NETF) will work to make digital and economic framework across the country.

•The Prime Minister reiterated bringing about an e-learning transformation and SAFAL portal is expected to work in that direction. 

•PM Modi also spoke about implementation of a universal play school programme in coming times across the country through Vidya Pravesh initiative. He said that the initiative will help bridge the divide between rural and urban and play schools will no longer be limited to urban cities. 

Academic Bank of Credit: The Prime Minister launch the Academic Bank of Credit, which aims to provide multiple entry and exit options for students in Higher education and also the first year Engineering Programmes in Regional Languages and Guidelines for Internationalization of Higher Education.

Vidya Pravesh: The initiative is a three-month play-based school preparation module for Grade 1 students

Indian Sign Language: The Indian Sign Language has been launched as a subject at the secondary level.

NISHTHA 2.0: This is an integrated programme of teacher training designed by NCERT.  

SAFAL (Structured Assessment For Analyzing Learning Levels): SAFAL is a competency-based assessment framework, which has been launched for Grades 3, 5 and 8 in CBSE schools. 

Artificial Intelligence Website: A website dedicated to Artificial Intelligence has also been launched. 

National Digital Education Architecture (NDEAR)

National Education Technology Forum (NETF)

All the new initiatives will mark a significant step towards realization of goals under National Education Policy 2020 and make the education sector more vibrant and accessible.

•The National Education Policy 2020 aims to be the guiding philosophy for changing the learning landscape of the country by making education more holistic and building strong foundations for an Atmanirbhar Bharat.

•It is the first education policy of the 21st century and replaces 34-year-old National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986. 

•The new education policy has been built on five major foundational pillars including- Access, Quality, Equity, Affordability and Accountability.

•The policy has been designed keeping in mind the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and aims to transform India into a vibrant global knowledge superpower by making both school and college education more holistic, flexible and multidisciplinary, to bring out the unique capabilities of each student.